Vietnamese Distinct and Diverse Culture and History

 

Vietnam possesses a unique and ancient culture closely linked to the history of its formation and development as a nation. Historians unanimously agree on a key point: Vietnam has a relatively large cultural community that began to form around the first half of the first millennium BC and flourished in the middle of this millennium. This is known as the Đông Sơn cultural community. This culture developed significantly compared to other contemporary cultures in the region, showcasing unique characteristics while still exhibiting many traits typical of Southeast Asian culture, due to a shared Austroasiatic heritage and rice civilization. The different developmental paths of indigenous cultures in various regions (such as the Red River, Mã River, and Cả River basins) converged to form the Đông Sơn culture. This period also marked the emergence of Vietnam's first "primitive" state in the form of inter-village and super-village communities (to combat invaders and build dikes for rice cultivation), from which primitive tribes evolved into a nation.

1. History

The Văn Lang - Âu Lạc cultural phase (around 3000 BC to the end of the first millennium BC) during the early Bronze Age, spanning 18 reigns of the Hùng kings, is considered the first peak of Vietnamese cultural history, highlighted by the creation of the Đông Sơn bronze drum and the establishment of stable wet rice cultivation.

After the period of resistance against Chinese domination, characterized by the simultaneous existence of Sinicization and anti-Sinicization trends, the Đại Việt period (from the 10th to the 15th centuries) represents the second peak of Vietnamese culture. Through various independent feudal dynasties, especially during the Lý-Trần and Lê dynasties, Vietnamese culture was comprehensively rebuilt and rapidly flourished, significantly influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism.

Following the chaotic Lê-Mạc period and the Trịnh-Nguyễn division of the country, the Tây Sơn movement laid the groundwork for national reunification, while the Nguyễn dynasty sought to revive culture based on Confucianism. However, by this time, Confucianism was in decline, and Western culture began to infiltrate Vietnam. This period continued until the end of French colonial rule, marked by a cultural interplay between Westernization and anti-Westernization, as well as the struggle between patriotic culture and colonial culture.

The modern Vietnamese cultural phase began in the 1920s and 1930s under the banner of nationalism and Marxism-Leninism. With increasing integration into modern global civilization while preserving and promoting national identity, Vietnamese culture promises a new historical peak.

Throughout the entire history of Vietnam, there have been three layers of culture overlapping: indigenous culture, cultural exchanges with China and the region, and cultural exchanges with the West. However, the main characteristic of Vietnam is that its strong indigenous cultural roots have prevented it from being assimilated by foreign cultures; instead, Vietnam has been able to utilize and indigenize those influences, enriching its national culture.

Vietnamese culture arises from a specific living environment: a hot, water-rich land at the crossroads of many great civilizations. Natural conditions (heat, humidity, monsoons, rivers, and wet rice agriculture) have significantly influenced the material and spiritual cultural life of the nation, shaping the character and psychology of the Vietnamese people. However, social and historical conditions are the major factors influencing culture and national psychology. Therefore, despite being rice-cultivating communities, there are still cultural differences between Vietnam and Thailand, Laos, Indonesia, India, etc. Although sharing a Southeast Asian cultural heritage, the long-term domination by the Han dynasty and the imposition of Han culture have led Vietnamese culture to evolve in a way that incorporates additional East Asian characteristics.

The Vietnamese nation formed early and has always had to engage in wars to defend its territory, resulting in a prominent cultural feature: a deep-seated patriotism that permeates all aspects of life. Community elements rooted in primitive origins have been consolidated early on, becoming the foundation for the development of nationalism and national consciousness. Continuous warfare has also been the main reason for the unusual trajectory of social development in Vietnam, where all economic and social structures are often disrupted by war, making it difficult to reach a mature peak of development. Due to the destructive impact of war, Vietnam has few monumental cultural and artistic works, and those that do exist have not been preserved intact.

Vietnam comprises 54 ethnic groups coexisting on its territory, each with its own unique characteristics, making Vietnamese culture a unity in diversity. In addition to the typical Việt-Mường culture, there are several other distinctive cultural groups such as Tày-Nùng, Thái, Chăm, Hoa-Ngái, Môn-Khmer, H’Mông-Dzao, especially the cultures of the Central Highlands, which preserve rich and comprehensive traditions of a purely agricultural society connected to the natural mountains and forests. Below is an overview of the main cultural fields:

2. Philosophy and Thought

Initially, the Vietnamese worldview was rooted in primitive, materialistic, and dialectical elements, intertwined with beliefs. However, stemming from an agricultural cultural root, which differs from nomadic cultures by emphasizing stability over movement and being closely related to natural phenomena, Vietnamese philosophical thought particularly focuses on relationships, exemplified by the theory of Yin and Yang, which is not entirely similar to that of China, and is best expressed in lifestyles aimed at achieving balance and harmony.

Later, the influences of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism were integrated and indigenized, contributing to the development of Vietnamese society and culture. Notably, the Trần dynasty's Zen masters uniquely contemplated and interpreted most philosophical issues raised by Buddhism (such as Mind-Buddha, Emptiness-Existence, Life-Death). Although Confucianism later flourished, many notable Vietnamese scholars did not study Confucius and Mencius dogmatically; instead, they embraced elements of Buddhism and Taoism, resulting in a more liberated, open-minded thought that resonated with the people and harmonized with nature.

In the feudal dynasties, the heavy burden of feudal thought oppressed farmers and constrained women, yet the democratic spirit of villages and the primitive communal nature persisted based on a self-sufficient agricultural economy. Deeply rooted in Vietnamese agricultural society, the farmer's philosophy has many positive traits and is emblematic of traditional Vietnamese identity. They have been the backbone in resisting foreign invasions through various uprisings, producing many talented generals and leaders, the pinnacle being the folk hero Quang Trung-Nguyễn Huệ in the late 18th century.

The pro-agriculture, anti-commerce policies, especially during the Nguyễn dynasty, slowed the development of urban consciousness. Historically, Vietnam has prioritized agriculture over other professions, often viewing merchants and other occupations as secondary, including cultural activities.

3. Festivals

In the 19th century, as domestic feudalism declined and Chinese civilization waned, Western culture began to penetrate Vietnam at the point of colonial guns. The working class formed in the early 20th century under colonial exploitation. Marxist-Leninist thought was introduced to Vietnam in the 1920s and 1930s, combining with nationalism to become a driving force for historical change, leading the country toward independence, democracy, and socialism. A prominent figure of this era is Hồ Chí Minh, a national hero, thinker, and cultural figure recognized internationally. The weak national bourgeoisie could only carry out partial reforms in the first half of the 20th century.

Thus, Vietnam does not have a distinct philosophical and ideological system and lacks internationally renowned philosophers. However, this does not mean that there are no life philosophies and thoughts that resonate with its people.

The agricultural society, characterized by community-oriented village life with many enduring primitive remnants, has created the unique personality of the Vietnamese people. This includes a dualistic way of thinking, a concrete thought process leaning more towards experiential knowledge than rationality, favoring imagery over concepts, but flexible and adaptable. It embodies a life rich in emotional bonds, solidarity with relatives and the community (because when the country is lost, the home is also lost; when floods come, the entire village is affected). The approach to action tends to be conciliatory and balanced, relying on relationships, while also skillfully adapting to situations, having often known how to use softness to overcome hardness and the weak to counter the strong throughout history.

Among the spiritual values, the Vietnamese place great emphasis on the concept of "Nhân" (Humanity), closely linking "Nhân" with "Nghĩa" (Righteousness) and "Đức" (Virtue). The absence of humanity and righteousness equates to a loss of virtue. Nguyễn Trãi once articulated the Vietnamese concept of "Nhân Nghĩa," opposing tyranny and elevating it as the foundation for governance and national salvation. The Vietnamese understanding of "Trung" (Loyalty) is loyalty to the nation, above loyalty to the king, and they value "Hiếu" (Filial Piety) without being overly confined to family boundaries. The concept of "Phúc" (Happiness) also ranks high in the value hierarchy; people praise a household for its happiness more than for its wealth or status.

On the path of industrialization, modernization, and global integration, efforts must be made to overcome certain shortcomings in traditional culture, such as a lack of logical and scientific thinking, patriarchal and conservative mindsets, localism, and narrow-mindedness; egalitarian tendencies; a tendency to negate individuality, flattening personalities; superstitions; and a penchant for empty formalism, while being weak in practical organization.

4. Customs and Traditions

The Vietnamese are practical and prefer durable food and clothing. First and foremost is food; "having food ensures the way," and even divine wrath can be avoided for a meal. The diet is primarily plant-based, with rice and vegetables as staples, supplemented by seafood. Boiling is a distinctive cooking method in Vietnam. However, the preparation of dishes is rich and diverse, combining various ingredients and spices. Nowadays, with the availability of more meat and fish, the taste of pickled vegetables remains important.

Traditional Vietnamese clothing often uses plant-based fabrics that are thin, light, and breathable, suitable for the hot climate, in shades of brown, indigo, and black. Men's attire evolved from traditional loincloths to shirts and trousers. Women traditionally wore "yếm" (a type of bodice), skirts, and four-piece dresses, later transitioning to the modern "áo dài." Generally, Vietnamese women dress modestly and delicately in a society where "character is more important than beauty." Traditional outfits also focus on accessories such as scarves, hats, and belts.

Traditional Vietnamese houses are closely linked to the riverine environment (stilt houses, curved roofs). Later, there were thatched houses with earthen walls, primarily made of bamboo and wood, designed not to be too tall to withstand storms, with the most important factor being that houses typically face south to avoid heat and cold. Houses are not overly spacious to allow room for yards, ponds, and gardens. Moreover, the Vietnamese believe that "a wide house is not as valuable as a generous heart." Traditional architecture often blends with nature.

Traditional means of transportation primarily involved waterways. Various types of boats are a familiar sight in the geographical and cultural landscape of Vietnam, alongside rivers and water banks.

Marriage customs, funerals, festivals, and celebrations in Vietnam are all linked to the communal nature of village life. Historically, marriage was not only a couple's choice but also had to satisfy the interests of clans, families, and villages, leading to careful selection of partners and auspicious dates, with numerous rituals from engagement to the wedding ceremony, and the payment of "cheo" (a form of bride price) to be officially recognized as a member of the community. Funeral rites are also meticulous, expressing grief and bidding farewell to loved ones, with neighbors and friends providing support.

Vietnam is a country of festivals throughout the year, especially during spring and the agricultural off-season. Major festivals include Tết Nguyên Đán (Lunar New Year), Tết Rằm tháng Giêng, Tết Hàn thực, Tết Đoan Ngọ, Tết Rằm tháng Bảy, Tết Trung Thu, and Tết Ông Công Ông Táo. Each region often has its own unique festivals, with agricultural festivals (praying for rain, rice planting, new rice) and occupational festivals (bronze casting, blacksmithing, firecrackers, boat racing) being the most significant. Additionally, there are festivals commemorating national heroes and religious and cultural festivals (temple festivals). Festivals consist of two parts: the ceremonial aspect, which holds significance for prayers and gratitude, and the festive aspect, which encompasses community cultural activities with various games and folk competitions.

5. Beliefs and Religions

Vietnamese folk beliefs from ancient times include:

Fertility worship, nature worship, and ancestor worship. The need for human reproduction and bountiful harvests to sustain and develop life gave rise to fertility beliefs. In Vietnam, these beliefs have persisted in two main forms: the worship of male and female fertility symbols (distinct from India, which only worships male fertility symbols) and the worship of reproductive acts (both human and animal, which is rare among Southeast Asian ethnic groups). These remnants can be found in many artifacts, sculptures, and the decorations of tombs in the Central Highlands, as well as in various customs and dances, most notably reflected in the shapes and patterns of ancient bronze drums.

Wet rice agriculture, dependent on numerous natural factors, has led to the worship of nature. In Vietnam, this manifests as polytheistic beliefs that emphasize female deities and include the worship of animals and plants. A research book published in 1984 listed 75 female deities, primarily maternal figures, including not only the Sky God but also the Earth Mother (Mẫu Cửu Trùng), the Mother of the Mountains (Mẫu Thượng Ngàn), and the Goddess of Rivers (Bà Chúa Sông). The most revered plant is rice, followed by the banyan tree, betel tree, mulberry tree, and gourd. In terms of animals, there is a tendency to worship gentle creatures like deer and frogs, avoiding predatory animals as seen in nomadic cultures, especially favoring species common in riverine areas such as water birds, snakes, and crocodiles. The Vietnamese identify as descendants of the Hồng Bàng lineage, akin to the Tiên Rồng (Hồng Bàng refers to a large waterbird, while Tiên symbolizes a mythical egg-laying bird and Rồng symbolizes a dragon, abstracted from snakes and crocodiles). The dragon emerging from the water and ascending to the sky is a unique and meaningful symbol of the Vietnamese nation.

In terms of human worship, ancestor worship is the most prevalent and has almost become a religion for the Vietnamese (in the southern regions referred to as Đạo Ông Bà). The Vietnamese place greater importance on death anniversaries than on birthdays. Every household worships the Thổ Công, the deity overseeing the home, ensuring prosperity for the family. Every village venerates the Thành Hoàng, the guardian deity of the village (often honoring those who contributed to the village's founding or national heroes born or died there). The entire nation worships the founding kings, with a common death anniversary (Hội đền Hùng). Notably, the worship of the Tứ Bất Tử represents the beautiful values of the nation: Thánh Tản Viên (flood prevention), Thánh Gióng (defending against foreign invaders), Chử Đồng Tử (a poor man who, with his devoted wife, built a prosperous life), and Bà Chúa Liễu Hạnh (a princess from Heaven who descended to earth seeking ordinary happiness).

Despite some instances leading to superstitions, folk beliefs remain resilient and have blended with mainstream religions.

Buddhism (Theravada) may have been introduced directly from India via maritime routes to Vietnam around the 2nd century AD. Vietnamese Buddhism is not otherworldly but rather integrated into daily life, focusing on charms and prayers for wealth and longevity rather than ascetic practices. When Mahayana Buddhism from China entered Vietnam, Vietnamese monks delved deeper into Buddhist studies, gradually forming distinct sects such as the Trúc Lâm Zen School, which emphasizes the Buddha within oneself. During the Lý-Trần period, Buddhism thrived while also embracing Confucianism and Taoism, creating a cultural landscape characterized by "Tam giáo đồng nguyên" (the coexistence of the three religions). Through many ups and downs, Buddhism became intimately connected with the Vietnamese people; statistics from 1993 indicated that there were still about 3 million monks and around 10 million people regularly visiting temples.

During the period of Chinese domination, Confucianism had no foothold in Vietnamese society. It was not until 1070, when Lý Thái Tổ established Văn Miếu (the Temple of Literature) to honor Confucius, that it can be considered officially accepted. In the 15th century, due to the need for national unity, centralized governance, and social order, Confucianism replaced Buddhism as the state religion under the Lê dynasty. Confucianism, primarily Song Confucianism, firmly established itself within the political-social framework, the examination system, and among the scholarly class, gradually dominating the spiritual life of society. However, Confucianism was only selectively absorbed in Vietnam, particularly in political and moral aspects, rather than adopting the entire system wholesale.

Taoism entered Vietnam around the late 2nd century. Its philosophy of non-action, which opposed the ruling class, was used by the people as a weapon against Northern feudalism. With its many mystical and supernatural elements, it resonated with human consciousness and primitive beliefs. Many Confucian scholars were drawn to the tranquil and carefree tendencies of Laozi and Zhuangzi. However, Taoism as a religion has long ceased to exist, leaving behind a legacy within folk beliefs.

Christianity arrived in Vietnam in the 17th century as a mediating link between Western culture and colonialism. It took advantage of favorable circumstances: a crumbling feudal system, the decline of Buddhism, and the stagnation of Confucianism, to become a source of spiritual comfort for a segment of the population, but for a long time, it could not harmonize with Vietnamese culture. Instead, it forced its followers to set up altars in their homes. Only when it integrated into the national culture could it establish a foothold in Vietnam. By 1993, there were approximately 5 million Catholics and nearly half a million Protestants.

The external religions that entered Vietnam did not erase indigenous folk beliefs; instead, they intertwined, leading to certain transformations on both sides. For example, Confucianism did not diminish the role of women; the worship of female deities remains prevalent in Vietnam. The polytheistic, democratic, and communal nature is reflected in the collective worship of ancestors, with multiple pairs of deities honored; in a single temple, one can find not only the Buddha but also many other deities, both spiritual and human. Perhaps only in Vietnam can we find tales of frogs suing the sky, as well as motifs of humans marrying celestial beings in folklore. These are distinctive features of Vietnamese beliefs.